opinions, upon request, to the president and to the heads of the executive
departments. Its Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the principle law
enforcement body, and its Immigration and Naturalization Service
administers immigration laws. A major agency within the department is the
Drug Enforcement Administration, (DEA), which administers narcotics and
controlled substances laws, and tracks down major illicit drug trafficking
organizations. The Justice Department also gives aid to local police
forces. In addition, the department directs U.S. district attorneys and
marshals throughout the country, supervises federal prisons and other penal
institutions, and investigates and reports to the president on petitions
for paroles and pardons. The Justice Department is also linked to INTERPOL,
the International Criminal Police Organization, charged with promoting
mutual assistance between law enforcement agencies in 146 countries.
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
The Department of Labor promotes the welfare of wage earners in the United
States, helps improve working conditions and fosters good relations between
labor and management. It administers more than 130 federal labor laws
through such agencies as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the Employment Standards Administration and the Mine Safety and
Health Administration. Among its responsibilities are: guaranteeing
workers' rights to safe and healthy working conditions; establishing
minimum hourly wages and overtime pay; prohibiting employment
discrimination; and providing for unemployment insurance and compensation
for on-the-job injury. It also protects workers' pension rights, sponsors
job training programs and helps workers find jobs. Its Bureau of Labor
Statistics monitors and reports changes in employment, prices and other
national economic measurements. For job seekers, the department makes
special efforts to help older workers, youths, minorities, women and the
handicapped.
DEPARTAMENT OF STATE
The Department of State advises the president, who has overall
responsibility for formulating and executing the foreign policy of the
United States. The department assesses American overseas interests, makes
recommendations on policy and future action, and takes necessary steps to
carry out established policy. It maintains contacts and relations between
the United States and foreign countries, advises the president on
recognition of new foreign countries and governments, negotiates treaties
and agreements with foreign nations, and speaks for the United States in
the United Nations and in more than 50 other major international
organizations. As-of 1988, the department supervised 141 embassies and 113
missions or consulates in foreign nations.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
The Department of Transportation (DOT) was created in 1966 by consolidating
land, sea and air transportation functions scattered thoughout eight
separate departments and agencies. DOT establishes the nation's overall
transportation policy through nine operating units that encompass highway
planning, development and construction; urban mass transit; railroads;
civilian aviation; and the safety of waterways, ports, highways, and oil
and gas pipelines. For example, the Federal Aviation Administration
operates more than 350 air traffic control facilities across the country;
the Federal Highway Administration is responsible for the 68,000-kilometer
interstate highway system; the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration establishes safety and fuel economy standards for motor
vehicles; and the Maritime Administration operates the U.S. merchant marine
fleet. The U.S. Coast Guard, the nation's primary maritime law enforcement
and licensing agency, conducts search and rescue missions at sea, combats
drug smuggling and works to prevent oil spills and ocean pollution.
DEPARTMENT OFTHE TREASURY
The Department of the Treasury is responsible for serving the fiscal and
monetary needs of the nation. The department performs four basic functions:
formulating financial, tax and fiscal policies; serving as financial agent
for the U.S. government; providing specialized law enforcement services;
and manufacturing coins and currency. The Treasury Department reports to
Congress and the president on the financial condition of the government and
the national economy. It regulates the sale of alcohol, tobacco and
firearms in interstate and foreign commerce; supervises the printing of
stamps for the U.S. Postal Service; operates the Secret Service, which
protects the president, the vice president, their families, and visiting
dignitaries and heads of state; suppresses counterfeiting of U.S. currency
and securities; and administers the Customs Service, which regulates and
taxes the flow of goods into the country. The department includes the
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, the Treasury official who
executes the laws governing the operation of approximately 4,600 banks; and
the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), which administers tax laws—the source
of most of the federal government's revenue.
DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS
The Department of Veterans Affairs, established as an independent agency in
1930 and elevated to Cabinet level in 1988, dispenses benefits and services
to eligible veterans of U.S. military service and their dependents. The
medicine and surgery department provides hospital and nursing home care,
and outpatient medical and dental services through 172 medical centers, 16
retirement homes, 228 clinics and 116 nursing homes in the United States,
Puerto Rico and the Philippines. It also supports veterans under care in
hospitals and nursing homes in 35 states. The veterans benefits department
oversees claims for disability, pensions, specially adapted housing and
other services. This department also administers education programs for
veterans, and provides housing credit assistance to eligible veterans and
active-duty service personnel. The memorial affairs department administers
the National Cemetery System, providing burial services, headstones and
markers to eligible veterans and their spouses within specially designated
cemeteries throughout the United States.
THE INDEPENDENT AGENCIES
The executive departments are the major operating units of | the federal
government, but there are many other agencies which have important
responsibilities for keeping the government and the economy working
smoothly. These are often called independent agencies, since they are not
part of the executive departments. The nature and purpose of these agencies
vary widely. Some are regulatory groups, with powers to supervise certain
sectors of the economy. Others provide special services, either to the
government or to the people. In most cases, the agencies have been created
by Congress to deal with matters that have become too complex for the scope
of ordinary legislation. The Interstate Commerce Commission, for example,
was established by Congress in 1887 to curb the growing power of the
railroads. In recent years, however, a trend toward deregulation of the
economy has altered the functions of many federal regulatory bodies. Among
the most important independent agencies are the following:
action is the principal federal agency for administering domestic volunteer
service programs to meet basic human needs, and to support the self-help
efforts of poor individuals and communities. Some of action's programs are
Foster Grandparents, offering older Americans opportunities for close
relationships with needy children; Volunteers in Service to America
(VISTA), which provides volunteers to work in poor communities; and Student
Community Service Projects, which encourages students to volunteer in their
communities as part of their education.
central intelligence agency (cia) coordinates intelligence activities of
certain government departments and agencies; collects, correlates and
evaluates intelligence information relating to national security; and makes
recommendations to the National Security Council.
environmental protection agency (epa), founded in 1970, works with state
and local governments throughout the United States to control and abate
pollution in the air and water, and to deal with the problems of solid
waste, pesticides, radiation and toxic substances. EPA sets and enforces
standards for air and water quality, evaluates the impact of pesticides and
chemical substances, and manages the so-called "Superfund" program for
cleaning toxic waste sites.
the federal communications commission licenses the operation of radio and
television stations and regulates interstate telephone and telegraph
services. It sets rates for interstate communications services, assigns
radio frequencies, and administers international communications treaties.
the federal reserve system supervises the private banking system of the
United States. It regulates the volume of credit and money in circulation.
The Federal Reserve performs many of the functions of central banks in
other countries, such as issuing paper currency; unlike central banks,
however, it does not act as the depository of the country's gold reserve.
the federal trade commission guards against trade abuses and unfair
business practices by conducting investigations and holding hearings on
complaints.
the general accounting office is an arm of the legislative branch that
oversees expenditures by the executive branch. It is headed by the
comptroller general of the United States. It settles or
adjusts—independently of the executive departments—all claims and demands
by or against the federal government, and all money accounts in which the
government is concerned. It also checks the ledger accounts of all federal
disbursement and collection officers to see that public funds have been
paid out legally.
the general services administration controls much of the physical property
of the federal government. It is responsible for the purchase, supply,
operation and maintenance of federal property, buildings and equipment, and
for the sale of surplus items.
the interstate commerce commission regulates the rates and practices in
interstate commerce of all common carriers, such as railroads, buses,
trucks, and shipping on inland waterways. It supervises the issuance of
stocks and bonds by common carriers and enforces safety laws.
THE NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA), established in
1958 to run the U.S. space program, placed the first American satellites
and astronauts in orbit, and launched the Apollo spacecraft that landed men
on the moon in 1969. Today, NASA conducts research aboard Earth-orbiting
satellites and interplanetary probes, explores new concepts in advanced
aerospace technology, and operates the U.S. fleet of manned space shuttles.
In the 1990s, NASA will assemble, in space, the components for a permanent
space station manned by international crews from the United States, Europe
and Japan.
THE NATIONAL FOUNDATION ON THE ARTS AND THE HUMANITIES encourages the
development of American arts, literature and scholarship, through grants to
individuals, groups, institutions and state agencies.
the national labor relations board administers the principal U.S. labor
law, the National Labor Relations Act. The Board is vested with the power
to prevent or remedy unfair labor practices and to safeguard employees'
rights to organize and determine through elections whether to have unions
as their bargaining representative.
the national science foundation was created to strengthen basic research
and education in the sciences in the United States. It grants funds for
research and education programs to universities and other institutions, and
coordinates the science information activities of the federal government.
the office of national drug control policy, created in 1988 to raise the
profile of the U.S. government's fight against illegal drugs, coordinates
efforts of such agencies as the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, the
Customs Service and the Coast Guard.
THE OFFICE OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT in 1979 assumed functions of the Civil
Service Commission, which was created in 1883 to establish a merit system
for government service and to eliminate politics from public appointments.
The agency holds competitive examinations across the country to select
qualified workers for over three million government posts. It also sponsors
training programs to increase the effectiveness of government employees.
the peace corps, founded in 1961, trains volunteers to serve in foreign
countries for two years. Peace Corps volunteers, now working in more than
60 nations, assist in agricultural-rural development, small business,
health, natural resources conservation and education.
THE SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION was established to protect investors
who buy stocks and bonds. Federal laws require companies that plan to raise
money by selling their own securities to file facts about their operations
with the commission. The commission has powers to prevent or punish fraud
in the sale of securities, and is authorized to regulate stock exchanges.
the small business administration lends money to small businesses, aids
victims of floods and other natural disasters, and helps secure contracts
for small businesses to supply goods and services to the federal
government.
THE UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID) carries out
economic assistance programs designed to help the people in developing
countries develop their human and economic resources, increase their
productive capacities, and improve the quality of human life. The USAID
administrator also serves as director of the U.S. International Development
Cooperation Agency, which serves as the focal point for U.S. participation
in such organizations as the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), the Organization
of American States (OAS) Technical Assistance Funds program, the World Bank
Group, and along with the Department of Agriculture, the Food for Peace
Program.
THE UNITED STATES ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT AGENCY is responsible for
U.S. participation in international negotiations on arms limitation and
disarmament. It represents the United States on international arms control
commissions and supports research on arms control and disarmament.
THE UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY (USIA) seeks to promote better
understanding of the United States in other countries through the
dissemination abroad of information about the nation, its people, culture
and policies. USIA also administers a number of two-way educational and
cultural exchange programs, such as the Fulbright Program, with foreign
nations. It provides assistance to foreign press and television journalists
covering the United States. The Agency also advises the president and the
various departments of the government on foreign opinion concerning U.S.
policies and programs.
the united states postal service is operated by an autonomous public
corporation that replaced the Post Office Department in 1971. The Postal
Service is responsible for the collection, transportation and delivery of
the mails, and for the operation of thousands of local post offices across
the country. It also provides international mail service through the
Universal Postal Union and other agreements with foreign countries. An
independent Postal Rate Commission, also created in 1971, sets the rates
for different classes of mail.
THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
A BICAMERAL CONGRESS
Article I of the Constitution grants all legislative powers of the federal
government to a Congress divided into two chambers. a Senate and a House of
Representatives. The Senate, the smaller of the two, is composed of two
members for each state as provided by the Constitution, Membership in the
House is based on population and its size is therefore not specified in the
Constitution.
For more than 100 years after the adoption of the Constitution, senators
were not elected by direct vote of the people but were chosen by state
legislatures. Senators were looked on as representatives of their home
states. Their duty was to ensure that their states were treated equally in
all legislation. The 17th Amendment, adopted in 1913, provided for direct
election of the Senate.
The delegates to the Constitutional Convention reasoned that if two
separate groups—one representing state governments and one representing the
people—must both approve every proposed law, there would be little danger
of Congress passing laws hurriedly or carelessly. One house could always
check the other in the manner of the British Parliament. Passage of the
17th Amendment did not substantially alter this balance of power between
the two houses.
While there was intense debate in the Convention over the makeup and
powers of Congress, many delegates believed that the legislative branch
would be relatively unimportant. A few believed that the Congress would
concern itself largely with external affairs, leaving domestic matters to
state and local governments. These views were clearly wide of the mark. The
Congress has proved to be exceedingly active, with broad powers and
authority in all matters of national concern. While its strength vis-a-vis
the executive branch has waxed and waned at different periods of American
history, the Congress has never been impotent or a rubber stamp for
presidential decisions.
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